Majority Language - Definition and Examples

A majority language is the language thats usually spoken by a majority of the population in a country or in a region of a country. In a multilingual society, the majority language is generally considered the high-status language. It is also called the dominant language or killer language, in contrast with minority language. As Dr. Lenore Grenoble points out in the Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World (2009), The respective terms majority and minority for Languages A and B are not always accurate; speakers of Language B may be numerically greater but in a disadvantaged social or economic position which makes the use of the language of wider communication attractive. Examples and Observations [P]ublic institutions in the most powerful Western nations, the U.K., the United States, France, and Germany, have been monolingual for over a century or more with no significant movement toward challenging the hegemonic position of the majority language. Immigrants have not generally challenged the hegemony of these nations and have usually assimilated rapidly, and none of these countries has faced the linguistic challenges of Belgium, Spain, Canada, or Switzerland. (S. Romaine, Language Policy in Multinational Educational Contexts. Concise Encyclopedia of Pragmatics, ed. by Jacob L. Mey. Elsevier, 2009) From Cornish (Minority Language) to English (Majority Language) Cornish was formerly spoken by thousands of people in Cornwall [England], but the community of Cornish speakers did not succeed in maintaining its language under the pressure of English, the prestigious majority language and national language. To put it differently: the Cornish community shifted from Cornish to English (cf. Pool, 1982). Such a process seems to be going on in many bilingual communities. More and more speakers use the majority language in domains where they formerly spoke the minority tongue. They adopt the majority language as their regular vehicle of communication, often mainly because they expect that speaking the language gives better chances for upward mobility and economic success. (Renà © Appel and Pieter Muysken, Language Contact and Bilingualism. Edward Arnold, 1987) Code-Switching: The We-Code and the They-Code The tendency is for the ethnically specific, minority language to be regarded as the we code and become associated with in-group and informal activities, and for the majority language to serve as the they code associated with more formal, stiffer and less personal out-group relations. (John Gumperz, Discourse Strategies. Cambridge University Press, 1982) Colin Baker on Elective and Circumstantial Bilingualism Elective bilingualism is a characteristic of individuals who choose to learn a language, for example in the classroom (Valdà ©s, 2003). Elective bilinguals typically come from majority language groups (e.g. English-speaking North Americans who learn French or Arabic). They add a second language without losing their first language. Circumstantial bilinguals learn another language to function effectively because of their circumstances (e.g. as immigrants). Their first language is insufficient to meet their educational, political and employment requirements, and the communicative needs of the society in which they are placed. Circumstantial bilinguals are groups of individuals who must become bilingual to operate in the majority language society that surrounds them. Consequently, their first language is in danger of being replaced by the second language—subtractive context. The difference between elective and circumstantial bilingualism is important because it immediately locate s differences of prestige and status, politics and power among bilinguals. (Colin Baker, Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 5th ed. Multilingual Matters, 2011)[U]ntil recently, bilinguals have often been wrongly portrayed negatively (e.g. as having a split identity, or cognitive deficits). Part of this is political (e.g. prejudice against immigrants; majority language groups asserting their greater power, status and economic ascendancy; those in power wanting social and political cohesion around monolingualism and monoculturism).However, the portrayal of bilinguals varies internationally. In some countries (e.g. India, parts of Africa and Asia), it is normal and expected to be multilingual (e.g. in a national language, an international language and one or more local languages). In other countries, bilinguals are typically immigrants and seen as causing economic, social and cultural challenges to the dominant majority. . . . With both immigrant and indigenous minori ties, the term minority is decreasingly defined in terms of smaller numbers in the population and increasingly as a language of low prestige and low in power relative to the majority language. (Colin Baker, Bilingualism and Multilingualism. The Linguistics Encyclopedia, 2nd ed., edited by Kirsten Malmkjaer. Routledge, 2004)

The Theory Of Hegemonic Stability - 1692 Words

Hegemony demands power. The theory of hegemonic stability in our international system requires a single, predominant state to enforce the rules of the system. A hegemonic state is indeed that; the most powerful state. In order to achieve this authority as a hegemon in the international system there are key attributes a state must possess in order to secure a stable position through competitive capability. The presence of a hegemon is a necessary condition for regime formation. Liberal regime theory states this regime puts forth a set of expectations for the international community and enforces this element. There are several ways a hegemon establishes authority and enforces their rules. Militarily, economically, and technologically.†¦show more content†¦A final key point a hegemonic regime must possess in combination with these elements in order to be successful, is an ability and willingness to lead. They must commit to the system, maintain the ability to enforce the rules of the system, and hold a zeal to force stability for what they perceive as mutually beneficial for the international system as a whole. Currently, the U.S. has established dominance in these factors, however, there is an ebb and flow with power in the international system and there are challenges to the lead power. China is the worlds most important rising power by many measures, and many of those measures indicate that China is indeed a leading power, second to the U.S. China’s Economy Economically, China possesses a GDP second to that of the U.S. and their economy has had the highest growth rate in the world in the last two decades. However, this growth in GDP has to be opened up and looked at underneath the surface. David Shambaugh references in his book China Goes Global, that â€Å"its [China’s] global position is not as strong as it seems. . .its exports are still dominated by generally low-end consumer products† (Shambaugh 157). China’s presence in the international trading market is that of consumer goods. Nearly all of China’s exports are manufactured consumer goods and China’s â€Å"knowledge-intensive industries still lag† (Shambaugh 158). China’s economic power is that of a

Diagnostic Tools Essay free essay sample

The prodronormal phase is turning into a need and no longer a want, this is also when blackouts begin. This phase can last form six months to about 5 years. The crucial phase is where you start to lose to control, once you take your first drink, you can not stop. Your life will revolve around alcohol. The last phase is the chronic phase, you begin drinking at an earlier time in the day and spend the majority of the day under the influence. You are able to tolerate more alcohol which causes you to drink more heavily and your behavior becomes dangerous. Tremors begin and you are no longer rational. The DSM-IV TR Diagnostic Criteria is a little different. For Alcohol dependence they see it as a pattern which leads to distress or impairment. They evaluate it from a 12 month period, if you have 3 or more issues from the list, you are considered alcohol dependent; Tolerance is increased and it becomes a need, withdrawal, not successful in being able to cut back alcohol consumption, spending more time doing things related to drinking, drinking larger amounts or a longer period than intended, when you know there is physical or psychological problem but continue to drink, and giving up things in your life because of your drinking. We will write a custom essay sample on Diagnostic Tools Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The DSM-IV TR for alcohol abuse is also a pattern in a 12 month period. If you have at least one from the following it is considered alcohol abuse; continue drinking that interferes with home or work, continued drinking that causes problems with personal life, drinking and having risky or hazardous behavior, more than one alcohol-related legal issue. There are some differences between Jellineks Phases of Alcoholism and DSM-IV TR. The newer version, DSM-IV TR dropped the word alcoholism and does not believe in overlapping symptoms of abuse or dependence. Diagnosing alcohol dependence are as followed; if the person has or doesnt have withdrawal and tolerance. Diagnosing alcohol abuse is associating with continuing to drink even though they have legal, personal, or social problems because of alcohol. While Jellineks Phases are associated with social, physical, and psychological symptoms recorded over a matter of time, they come step by step. They also believe phases can overlap. DSM-IV TR is what more people go by, because it is up to date and more accurate to help diagnose people with what kind of problem are facing.